Design And Development Of Model Predictive Primary Control Of Micro Grids
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Design And Development Of Model Predictive Primary Control Of Micro Grids
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Author : Puvvula Vidyasagar
language : en
Publisher: Springer Nature
Release Date : 2023-01-01
Design And Development Of Model Predictive Primary Control Of Micro Grids written by Puvvula Vidyasagar and has been published by Springer Nature this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2023-01-01 with Technology & Engineering categories.
This book provides a design and development perspective MPC for micro-grid control, emphasizing step-by-step conversion of a nonlinear MPC to linear MPC preserving critical aspects of nonlinear MPC. The book discusses centralized and decentralized MPC control algorithms for a generic modern-day micro-grid consisting of vital essential constituents. It starts with the nonlinear MPC formulation for micro-grids. It also moves towards the linear time-invariant and linear time-variant approximations of the MPC for micro-grid control. The contents also discuss how the application of orthonormal special functions can improve computational complexity of MPC algorithms. It also highlights various auxiliary requirements like state estimator, disturbance compensator for robustness, selective harmonic eliminator for eliminating harmonics in the micro-grid, etc. These additional requirements are crucial for the successful online implementation of the MPC. In the end, the book shows how a well-designed MPC is superior in performance compared to the conventional micro-grid primary controllers discussed above. The key topics discussed in this book include – the detailed modeling of micro-grid components; operational modes in micro-grid and their control objectives; conventional micro-grid primary controllers; the importance of MPC as a micro-grid primary controller; understanding of MPC operation; nonlinear MPC formulation; linear approximations of MPC; application of special functions in the MPC formulation; and other online requirements for the MPC implementation. The examples in the book are available both from a calculation point of view and as MATLAB codes. This helps the students get acquainted with the subject first and then allows them to implement the subject they learn in software for further understanding and research.
Model Predictive Control Of Microgrids
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Author : Carlos Bordons
language : en
Publisher: Springer Nature
Release Date : 2019-09-12
Model Predictive Control Of Microgrids written by Carlos Bordons and has been published by Springer Nature this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2019-09-12 with Technology & Engineering categories.
The book shows how the operation of renewable-energy microgrids can be facilitated by the use of model predictive control (MPC). It gives readers a wide overview of control methods for microgrid operation at all levels, ranging from quality of service, to integration in the electricity market. MPC-based solutions are provided for the main control issues related to energy management and optimal operation of microgrids. The authors present MPC techniques for case studies that include different renewable sources – mainly photovoltaic and wind – as well as hybrid storage using batteries, hydrogen and supercapacitors. Experimental results for a pilot-scale microgrid are also presented, as well as simulations of scheduling in the electricity market and integration of electric and hybrid vehicles into the microgrid. in order to replicate the examples provided in the book and to develop and validate control algorithms on existing or projected microgrids. Model Predictive Control of Microgrids will interest researchers and practitioners, enabling them to keep abreast of a rapidly developing field. The text will also help to guide graduate students through processes from the conception and initial design of a microgrid through its implementation to the optimization of microgrid management. Advances in Industrial Control reports and encourages the transfer of technology in control engineering. The rapid development of control technology has an impact on all areas of the control discipline. The series offers an opportunity for researchers to present an extended exposition of new work in all aspects of industrial control.
Smart Grid Opportunities And Challenges In Integrating Renewable Energies
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Author : Muhammad Faizan Tahir
language : en
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Release Date : 2023-06-27
Smart Grid Opportunities And Challenges In Integrating Renewable Energies written by Muhammad Faizan Tahir and has been published by Frontiers Media SA this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2023-06-27 with Technology & Engineering categories.
Microgrids
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Author : Ghous Bakhsh Narejo
language : en
Publisher: CRC Press
Release Date : 2021-10-11
Microgrids written by Ghous Bakhsh Narejo and has been published by CRC Press this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2021-10-11 with Technology & Engineering categories.
This book addresses the needs of researchers on the fundamental level as well as those with more advanced knowledge of microgrids and their evolution. This book covers newly emerging trends in fields such as computer science, energy, electrical engineering, and electronics and brings the reader current on the newly emerging fields that play an important role in the power infrastructure. Microgrids: Design, Challenges, and Prospects provides knowledge on decision making for newly evolving trends in microgrid design. It discusses techniques on how to improve the existing power quality and reduce load shedding and power imbalances. The book presents the emerging fields such as data science, machine learning, AI, and IT that now play an important role in microgrid design. The readership includes: researchers, academia, practicing engineers, consumers, power companies, and policy makers located across the globe.
Power System Operation And Optimization Considering High Penetration Of Renewable Energy
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Author : Shengyuan Liu
language : en
Publisher: Frontiers Media SA
Release Date : 2024-09-19
Power System Operation And Optimization Considering High Penetration Of Renewable Energy written by Shengyuan Liu and has been published by Frontiers Media SA this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2024-09-19 with Technology & Engineering categories.
The energy landscape is shifting toward renewable energy sources to mitigate climate change and reduce dependence on fossil fuels. The integration of renewable energy sources into the power grid presents various challenges, including uncertainty and variability of renewable energy sources, grid stability, and management of energy storage. Power system operation and optimization play a crucial role in managing the energy supply-demand balance, reducing operational costs, and improving the reliability of the power system. This call for papers aims to bring together the latest research and practical applications related to power system operation and optimization in the context of high penetration of renewable energy sources. We welcome contributions from researchers and practitioners from a broad range of disciplines to shed light on the challenges and opportunities associated with renewable energy integration in power systems. The objective of this Research Topic is to explore the latest advances in power system operation and optimization with a focus on the high penetration of renewable energy sources. We invite potential authors to submit articles for publication on the Research Topic of Frontiers in Energy Research on Power System Operation and Optimization Considering the High Penetration of Renewable Energy.
Microgrids Design And Operation
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Author : Ibrahim Anwar Ibrahim
language : en
Publisher: Springer Nature
Release Date : 2025-05-24
Microgrids Design And Operation written by Ibrahim Anwar Ibrahim and has been published by Springer Nature this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2025-05-24 with Technology & Engineering categories.
This book delves into the evolving landscape of microgrids, offering a comprehensive guide on their design, operation, and integration within modern electrical networks. The subject of this book is microgrids, which are pivotal in the transition toward decentralised, decarbonised, and digitalised energy systems. The book is structured around several practical use cases, detailing the methods and results that will be of particular interest to readers, such as optimisation of power flow, integration of distributed energy resources (DERs), and advanced energy management systems. It features an array of illustrations, tables, and diagrams that enhance the reader's understanding of complex concepts, along with a didactic approach that includes step-by-step guides and case studies of 30 microgrid projects from around the world. Readers will benefit from detailed insights into the economic, technical, and social aspects of microgrids, including their role in enhancing grid resilience, improving energy efficiency, and supporting renewable integration. The book also addresses the latest technological advancements, such as digital twins and machine learning applications, that are shaping the future of microgrid design and operation. It serves as a practical manual, providing frameworks and methodologies that can be applied in real-world scenarios to optimise microgrid performance. The unique combination of theoretical knowledge and practical experience makes this book a valuable resource for researchers, engineers, policymakers, and practitioners in the energy sector.
Model Predictive Control Of Microgrids
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Author : Carlos Bordons
language : en
Publisher:
Release Date : 2020
Model Predictive Control Of Microgrids written by Carlos Bordons and has been published by this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2020 with Microgrids (Smart power grids) categories.
The book shows how the operation of renewable-energy microgrids can be facilitated by the use of model predictive control (MPC). It gives readers a wide overview of control methods for microgrid operation at all levels, ranging from quality of service, to integration in the electricity market. MPC-based solutions are provided for the main control issues related to energy management and optimal operation of microgrids.The authors present MPC techniques for case studies that include different renewable sources - mainly photovoltaic and wind - as well as hybrid storage using batteries, hydrogen and supercapacitors. Experimental results for a pilot-scale microgrid are also presented, as well as simulations of scheduling in the electricity market and integration of electric and hybrid vehicles into the microgrid. The authors also provide a modular simulator to be run in MATLAB®/Simulink®, for readers to create their own microgrids using the blocks supplied, in order to replicate the examples provided in the book and to develop and validate control algorithms on existing or projected microgrids. Model Predictive Control of Microgrids will interest researchers and practitioners, enabling them to keep abreast of a rapidly developing field. The text will also help to guide graduate students through processes from the conception and initial design of a microgrid through its implementation to the optimization of microgrid management.
Control Applications In Modern Power Systems
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Author : Jitendra Kumar
language : en
Publisher: Springer Nature
Release Date : 2023-02-17
Control Applications In Modern Power Systems written by Jitendra Kumar and has been published by Springer Nature this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2023-02-17 with Technology & Engineering categories.
This book provides rigorous discussions, case studies, and recent developments in the emerging areas of a control system, especially load frequency control, wide-area monitoring, control and instrumentation, optimization, intelligent control, energy management system, SCADA systems, etc. The readers would be benefitted from enhancing their knowledge and skills in the domain areas. Also, this book may help the readers in developing new and innovative ideas. The book can be a valuable reference for researchers and professionals interested in developments in the control system.
Microgrids
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Author : Nikos Hatziargyriou
language : en
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
Release Date : 2014-03-03
Microgrids written by Nikos Hatziargyriou and has been published by John Wiley & Sons this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2014-03-03 with Technology & Engineering categories.
Microgrids are the most innovative area in the electric power industry today. Future microgrids could exist as energy-balanced cells within existing power distribution grids or stand-alone power networks within small communities. A definitive presentation on all aspects of microgrids, this text examines the operation of microgrids – their control concepts and advanced architectures including multi-microgrids. It takes a logical approach to overview the purpose and the technical aspects of microgrids, discussing the social, economic and environmental benefits to power system operation. The book also presents microgrid design and control issues, including protection and explaining how to implement centralized and decentralized control strategies. Key features: original, state-of-the-art research material written by internationally respected contributors unique case studies demonstrating success stories from real-world pilot sites from Europe, the Americas, Japan and China examines market and regulatory settings for microgrids, and provides evaluation results under standard test conditions a look to the future – technical solutions to maximize the value of distributed energy along with the principles and criteria for developing commercial and regulatory frameworks for microgrids Offering broad yet balanced coverage, this volume is an entry point to this very topical area of power delivery for electric power engineers familiar with medium and low voltage distribution systems, utility operators in microgrids, power systems researchers and academics. It is also a useful reference for system planners and operators, manufacturers and network operators, government regulators, and postgraduate power systems students. CONTRIBUTORS Thomas Degner Aris Dimeas Alfred Engler Nuno Gil Asier Gil de Muro Guillermo Jiménez-Estévez George Kariniotakis George Korres André Madureira Meiqin Mao Chris Marnay Jose Miguel Yarza Satoshi Morozumi Alexander Oudalov Frank van Overbeeke Rodrigo Palma Behnke Joao Abel Pecas Lopes Fernanda Resende John Romankiewicz Christine Schwaegerl Nikos Soultanis Liang Tao Antonis Tsikalakis
Automatic Solar Tracking Sun Tracking Satellite Tracking Rastreador Solar Seguimento Solar Seguidor Solar Autom Tico De Seguimiento Solar
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Author : Gerro Prinsloo
language : en
Publisher: Gerro Prinsloo
Release Date : 2015-11-01
Automatic Solar Tracking Sun Tracking Satellite Tracking Rastreador Solar Seguimento Solar Seguidor Solar Autom Tico De Seguimiento Solar written by Gerro Prinsloo and has been published by Gerro Prinsloo this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2015-11-01 with Technology & Engineering categories.
Automatic Solar Tracking Sun Tracking : This book details Automatic Solar-Tracking, Sun-Tracking-Systems, Solar-Trackers and Sun Tracker Systems. An intelligent automatic solar tracker is a device that orients a payload toward the sun. Such programmable computer based solar tracking device includes principles of solar tracking, solar tracking systems, as well as microcontroller, microprocessor and/or PC based solar tracking control to orientate solar reflectors, solar lenses, photovoltaic panels or other optical configurations towards the sun. Motorized space frames and kinematic systems ensure motion dynamics and employ drive technology and gearing principles to steer optical configurations such as mangin, parabolic, conic, or cassegrain solar energy collectors to face the sun and follow the sun movement contour continuously (seguimiento solar y automatización, automatización seguidor solar, tracking solar e automação, automação seguidor solar, inseguimento solare, inseguitore solare, energia termica, sole seguito, posizionatore motorizzato) In harnessing power from the sun through a solar tracker or practical solar tracking system, renewable energy control automation systems require automatic solar tracking software and solar position algorithms to accomplish dynamic motion control with control automation architecture, circuit boards and hardware. On-axis sun tracking system such as the altitude-azimuth dual axis or multi-axis solar tracker systems use a sun tracking algorithm or ray tracing sensors or software to ensure the sun's passage through the sky is traced with high precision in automated solar tracker applications, right through summer solstice, solar equinox and winter solstice. A high precision sun position calculator or sun position algorithm is this an important step in the design and construction of an automatic solar tracking system. The content of the book is also applicable to communication antenna satellite tracking and moon tracking algorithm source code for which links to free download links are provided. From sun tracing software perspective, the sonnet Tracing The Sun has a literal meaning. Within the context of sun track and trace, this book explains that the sun's daily path across the sky is directed by relatively simple principles, and if grasped/understood, then it is relatively easy to trace the sun with sun following software. Sun position computer software for tracing the sun are available as open source code, sources that is listed in this book. The book also describes the use of satellite tracking software and mechanisms in solar tracking applications. Ironically there was even a system called sun chaser, said to have been a solar positioner system known for chasing the sun throughout the day. Using solar equations in an electronic circuit for automatic solar tracking is quite simple, even if you are a novice, but mathematical solar equations are over complicated by academic experts and professors in text-books, journal articles and internet websites. In terms of solar hobbies, scholars, students and Hobbyist's looking at solar tracking electronics or PC programs for solar tracking are usually overcome by the sheer volume of scientific material and internet resources, which leaves many developers in frustration when search for simple experimental solar tracking source-code for their on-axis sun-tracking systems. This booklet will simplify the search for the mystical sun tracking formulas for your sun tracker innovation and help you develop your own autonomous solar tracking controller. By directing the solar collector directly into the sun, a solar harvesting means or device can harness sunlight or thermal heat. This is achieved with the help of sun angle formulas, solar angle formulas or solar tracking procedures for the calculation of sun's position in the sky. Automatic sun tracking system software includes algorithms for solar altitude azimuth angle calculations required in following the sun across the sky. In using the longitude, latitude GPS coordinates of the solar tracker location, these sun tracking software tools supports precision solar tracking by determining the solar altitude-azimuth coordinates for the sun trajectory in altitude-azimuth tracking at the tracker location, using certain sun angle formulas in sun vector calculations. Instead of follow the sun software, a sun tracking sensor such as a sun sensor or webcam or video camera with vision based sun following image processing software can also be used to determine the position of the sun optically. Such optical feedback devices are often used in solar panel tracking systems and dish tracking systems. Dynamic sun tracing is also used in solar surveying, DNI analyser and sun surveying systems that build solar infographics maps with solar radiance, irradiance and DNI models for GIS (geographical information system). In this way geospatial methods on solar/environment interaction makes use use of geospatial technologies (GIS, Remote Sensing, and Cartography). Climatic data and weather station or weather center data, as well as queries from sky servers and solar resource database systems (i.e. on DB2, Sybase, Oracle, SQL, MySQL) may also be associated with solar GIS maps. In such solar resource modelling systems, a pyranometer or solarimeter is normally used in addition to measure direct and indirect, scattered, dispersed, reflective radiation for a particular geographical location. Sunlight analysis is important in flash photography where photographic lighting are important for photographers. GIS systems are used by architects who add sun shadow applets to study architectural shading or sun shadow analysis, solar flux calculations, optical modelling or to perform weather modelling. Such systems often employ a computer operated telescope type mechanism with ray tracing program software as a solar navigator or sun tracer that determines the solar position and intensity. The purpose of this booklet is to assist developers to track and trace suitable source-code and solar tracking algorithms for their application, whether a hobbyist, scientist, technician or engineer. Many open-source sun following and tracking algorithms and source-code for solar tracking programs and modules are freely available to download on the internet today. Certain proprietary solar tracker kits and solar tracking controllers include a software development kit SDK for its application programming interface API attributes (Pebble). Widget libraries, widget toolkits, GUI toolkit and UX libraries with graphical control elements are also available to construct the graphical user interface (GUI) for your solar tracking or solar power monitoring program. The solar library used by solar position calculators, solar simulation software and solar contour calculators include machine program code for the solar hardware controller which are software programmed into Micro-controllers, Programmable Logic Controllers PLC, programmable gate arrays, Arduino processor or PIC processor. PC based solar tracking is also high in demand using C++, Visual Basic VB, as well as MS Windows, Linux and Apple Mac based operating systems for sun path tables on Matlab, Excel. Some books and internet webpages use other terms, such as: sun angle calculator, sun position calculator or solar angle calculator. As said, such software code calculate the solar azimuth angle, solar altitude angle, solar elevation angle or the solar Zenith angle (Zenith solar angle is simply referenced from vertical plane, the mirror of the elevation angle measured from the horizontal or ground plane level). Similar software code is also used in solar calculator apps or the solar power calculator apps for IOS and Android smartphone devices. Most of these smartphone solar mobile apps show the sun path and sun-angles for any location and date over a 24 hour period. Some smartphones include augmented reality features in which you can physically see and look at the solar path through your cell phone camera or mobile phone camera at your phone's specific GPS location. In the computer programming and digital signal processing (DSP) environment, (free/open source) program code are available for VB, .Net, Delphi, Python, C, C+, C++, PHP, Swift, ADM, F, Flash, Basic, QBasic, GBasic, KBasic, SIMPL language, Squirrel, Solaris, Assembly language on operating systems such as MS Windows, Apple Mac, DOS or Linux OS. Software algorithms predicting position of the sun in the sky are commonly available as graphical programming platforms such as Matlab (Mathworks), Simulink models, Java applets, TRNSYS simulations, Scada system apps, Labview module, Beckhoff TwinCAT (Visual Studio), Siemens SPA, mobile and iphone apps, Android or iOS tablet apps, and so forth. At the same time, PLC software code for a range of sun tracking automation technology can follow the profile of sun in sky for Siemens, HP, Panasonic, ABB, Allan Bradley, OMRON, SEW, Festo, Beckhoff, Rockwell, Schneider, Endress Hauser, Fudji electric. Honeywell, Fuchs, Yokonawa, or Muthibishi platforms. Sun path projection software are also available for a range of modular IPC embedded PC motherboards, Industrial PC, PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) and PAC (Programmable Automation Controller) such as the Siemens S7-1200 or Siemens Logo, Beckhoff IPC or CX series, OMRON PLC, Ercam PLC, AC500plc ABB, National Instruments NI PXI or NI cRIO, PIC processor, Intel 8051/8085, IBM (Cell, Power, Brain or Truenorth series), FPGA (Xilinx Altera Nios), Intel, Xeon, Atmel megaAVR, MPU, Maple, Teensy, MSP, XMOS, Xbee, ARM, Raspberry Pi, Eagle, Arduino or Arduino AtMega microcontroller, with servo motor, stepper motor, direct current DC pulse width modulation PWM (current driver) or alternating current AC SPS or IPC variable frequency drives VFD motor drives (also termed adjustable-frequency drive, variable-speed drive, AC drive, micro drive or inverter drive) for electrical, mechatronic, pneumatic, or hydraulic solar tracking actuators. The above motion control and robot control systems include analogue or digital interfacing ports on the processors to allow for tracker angle orientation feedback control through one or a combination of angle sensor or angle encoder, shaft encoder, precision encoder, optical encoder, magnetic encoder, direction encoder, rotational encoder, chip encoder, tilt sensor, inclination sensor, or pitch sensor. Note that the tracker's elevation or zenith axis angle may measured using an altitude angle-, declination angle-, inclination angle-, pitch angle-, or vertical angle-, zenith angle- sensor or inclinometer. Similarly the tracker's azimuth axis angle be measured with a azimuth angle-, horizontal angle-, or roll angle- sensor. Chip integrated accelerometer magnetometer gyroscope type angle sensors can also be used to calculate displacement. Other options include the use of thermal imaging systems such as a Fluke thermal imager, or robotic or vision based solar tracker systems that employ face tracking, head tracking, hand tracking, eye tracking and car tracking principles in solar tracking. With unattended decentralised rural, island, isolated, or autonomous off-grid power installations, remote control, monitoring, data acquisition, digital datalogging and online measurement and verification equipment becomes crucial. It assists the operator with supervisory control to monitor the efficiency of remote renewable energy resources and systems and provide valuable web-based feedback in terms of CO2 and clean development mechanism (CDM) reporting. A power quality analyser for diagnostics through internet, WiFi and cellular mobile links is most valuable in frontline troubleshooting and predictive maintenance, where quick diagnostic analysis is required to detect and prevent power quality issues. Solar tracker applications cover a wide spectrum of solar applications and solar assisted application, including concentrated solar power generation, solar desalination, solar water purification, solar steam generation, solar electricity generation, solar industrial process heat, solar thermal heat storage, solar food dryers, solar water pumping, hydrogen production from methane or producing hydrogen and oxygen from water (HHO) through electrolysis. Many patented or non-patented solar apparatus include tracking in solar apparatus for solar electric generator, solar desalinator, solar steam engine, solar ice maker, solar water purifier, solar cooling, solar refrigeration, USB solar charger, solar phone charging, portable solar charging tracker, solar coffee brewing, solar cooking or solar dying means. Your project may be the next breakthrough or patent, but your invention is held back by frustration in search for the sun tracker you require for your solar powered appliance, solar generator, solar tracker robot, solar freezer, solar cooker, solar drier, solar pump, solar freezer, or solar dryer project. Whether your solar electronic circuit diagram include a simplified solar controller design in a solar electricity project, solar power kit, solar hobby kit, solar steam generator, solar hot water system, solar ice maker, solar desalinator, hobbyist solar panels, hobby robot, or if you are developing professional or hobby electronics for a solar utility or micro scale solar powerplant for your own solar farm or solar farming, this publication may help accelerate the development of your solar tracking innovation. Lately, solar polygeneration, solar trigeneration (solar triple generation), and solar quad generation (adding delivery of steam, liquid/gaseous fuel, or capture food-grade CO$_2$) systems have need for automatic solar tracking. These systems are known for significant efficiency increases in energy yield as a result of the integration and re-use of waste or residual heat and are suitable for compact packaged micro solar powerplants that could be manufactured and transported in kit-form and operate on a plug-and play basis. Typical hybrid solar power systems include compact or packaged solar micro combined heat and power (CHP or mCHP) or solar micro combined, cooling, heating and power (CCHP, CHPC, mCCHP, or mCHPC) systems used in distributed power generation. These systems are often combined in concentrated solar CSP and CPV smart microgrid configurations for off-grid rural, island or isolated microgrid, minigrid and distributed power renewable energy systems. Solar tracking algorithms are also used in modelling of trigeneration systems using Matlab Simulink (Modelica or TRNSYS) platform as well as in automation and control of renewable energy systems through intelligent parsing, multi-objective, adaptive learning control and control optimization strategies. Solar tracking algorithms also find application in developing solar models for country or location specific solar studies, for example in terms of measuring or analysis of the fluctuations of the solar radiation (i.e. direct and diffuse radiation) in a particular area. Solar DNI, solar irradiance and atmospheric information and models can thus be integrated into a solar map, solar atlas or geographical information systems (GIS). Such models allows for defining local parameters for specific regions that may be valuable in terms of the evaluation of different solar in photovoltaic of CSP systems on simulation and synthesis platforms such as Matlab and Simulink or in linear or multi-objective optimization algorithm platforms such as COMPOSE, EnergyPLAN or DER-CAM. A dual-axis solar tracker and single-axis solar tracker may use a sun tracker program or sun tracker algorithm to position a solar dish, solar panel array, heliostat array, PV panel, solar antenna or infrared solar nantenna. A self-tracking solar concentrator performs automatic solar tracking by computing the solar vector. Solar position algorithms (TwinCAT, SPA, or PSA Algorithms) use an astronomical algorithm to calculate the position of the sun. It uses astronomical software algorithms and equations for solar tracking in the calculation of sun's position in the sky for each location on the earth at any time of day. Like an optical solar telescope, the solar position algorithm pin-points the solar reflector at the sun and locks onto the sun's position to track the sun across the sky as the sun progresses throughout the day. Optical sensors such as photodiodes, light-dependant-resistors (LDR) or photoresistors are used as optical accuracy feedback devices. Lately we also included a section in the book (with links to microprocessor code) on how the PixArt Wii infrared camera in the Wii remote or Wiimote may be used in infrared solar tracking applications. In order to harvest free energy from the sun, some automatic solar positioning systems use an optical means to direct the solar tracking device. These solar tracking strategies use optical tracking techniques, such as a sun sensor means, to direct sun rays onto a silicon or CMOS substrate to determine the X and Y coordinates of the sun's position. In a solar mems sun-sensor device, incident sunlight enters the sun sensor through a small pin-hole in a mask plate where light is exposed to a silicon substrate. In a web-camera or camera image processing sun tracking and sun following means, object tracking software performs multi object tracking or moving object tracking methods. In an solar object tracking technique, image processing software performs mathematical processing to box the outline of the apparent solar disc or sun blob within the captured image frame, while sun-localization is performed with an edge detection algorithm to determine the solar vector coordinates. An automated positioning system help maximize the yields of solar power plants through solar tracking control to harness sun's energy. In such renewable energy systems, the solar panel positioning system uses a sun tracking techniques and a solar angle calculator in positioning PV panels in photovoltaic systems and concentrated photovoltaic CPV systems. Automatic on-axis solar tracking in a PV solar tracking system can be dual-axis sun tracking or single-axis sun solar tracking. It is known that a motorized positioning system in a photovoltaic panel tracker increase energy yield and ensures increased power output, even in a single axis solar tracking configuration. Other applications such as robotic solar tracker or robotic solar tracking system uses robotica with artificial intelligence in the control optimization of energy yield in solar harvesting through a robotic tracking system. Automatic positioning systems in solar tracking designs are also used in other free energy generators, such as concentrated solar thermal power CSP and dish Stirling systems. The sun tracking device in a solar collector in a solar concentrator or solar collector Such a performs on-axis solar tracking, a dual axis solar tracker assists to harness energy from the sun through an optical solar collector, which can be a parabolic mirror, parabolic reflector, Fresnel lens or mirror array/matrix. A parabolic dish or reflector is dynamically steered using a transmission system or solar tracking slew drive mean. In steering the dish to face the sun, the power dish actuator and actuation means in a parabolic dish system optically focusses the sun's energy on the focal point of a parabolic dish or solar concentrating means. A Stirling engine, solar heat pipe, thermosyphin, solar phase change material PCM receiver, or a fibre optic sunlight receiver means is located at the focal point of the solar concentrator. The dish Stirling engine configuration is referred to as a dish Stirling system or Stirling power generation system. Hybrid solar power systems (used in combination with biogas, biofuel, petrol, ethanol, diesel, natural gas or PNG) use a combination of power sources to harness and store solar energy in a storage medium. Any multitude of energy sources can be combined through the use of controllers and the energy stored in batteries, phase change material, thermal heat storage, and in cogeneration form converted to the required power using thermodynamic cycles (organic Rankin, Brayton cycle, micro turbine, Stirling) with an inverter and charge controller.