Flexibility In The Parts Of Speech System Of Classical Chinese
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Flexibility In The Parts Of Speech System Of Classical Chinese
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Author : Linlin Sun
language : en
Publisher: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
Release Date : 2020-02-10
Flexibility In The Parts Of Speech System Of Classical Chinese written by Linlin Sun and has been published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2020-02-10 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
Languages across the world differ from each other in a number of respects, and one such difference is in terms of how their lexicons are categorized. Compared to most European languages with distinct, functionally dedicated word classes in the traditional sense, quite a few languages are observed to possess lexical items that can fulfill the functions typically associated with more than one traditional word class such as ‘noun’ and ‘verb’. According to Rijkhoff and van Lier (2013), these lexemes exhibit what is called ‘flexibility’. Classical Chinese is observed to feature word-class flexibility, in the sense that there are lexemes that can be used to serve the functions of two or more traditional word classes, without the functional change being marked by any derivational means. For instance, a lexical item like xìn can either function as a verb meaning ‘to be trustworthy [intr.]’ or ‘to believe, to trust [tr.]’ or serve as a noun meaning ‘trust, oath of alliance’. Similarly, a human-denoting lexeme such as yŏu FRIEND cannot only mean ‘a friend’ but also ‘to be a friend, to behave friendly [intr.]’, ‘to make friends with [tr.]’ or ‘to consider as a friend [tr.]’; an instrument word like biān WHIP cannot only mean ‘a whip’ but also ‘to whip’. This situation is often thought to be related to the fact that Classical Chinese does not have any kind of productive morphology in the traditional sense (e.g. Zádrapa 2011). This is reflected in the lack of markedness distinctions across Croft’s (2000, 2001) conceptual space for parts of speech. This study ascribes flexibility of parts of speech in Classical Chinese to precategoriality, in line with Bisang (2008 a, b). Precategoriality can roughly be defined as the absence of the noun-verb distinction in the lexicon; instead, the linking of individual words to the syntactic position of N or V as well as their text frequency in these positions are subject to pragmatics. Precategorial lexical items are those that are not preclassified into parts of speech in the lexicon; rather, their word-class specification is ultimately determined at the syntactic level, according to their position/function in a given word-class indicating construction. From a diachronic viewpoint, this study assumes that precategoriality and categoriality of individual lexical items are not static, but that they are potentialities and tendencies that may change over time. Specifically, (full) precategoriality and (full) categoriality are assumed to constitute a continuum in the lexicon of Chinese throughout its history. In any given historical period, lexical items of the language are distributed between the two extremes on the continuum, according to the intensity of the association between their lexical meaning and the syntactic position/function of e.g. N or V. Generally, along the continuum at a given historical stage, lexemes with a strong association between meaning and function (i.e. lexemes that are normally associated only with one word-class specification for a particular syntactic role) tend to be located close to the extreme of (full) categoriality. In contrast, lexemes that are not necessarily related to one specific association between meaning and function, but can potentially occur in a variety of such associations, are assumed to be placed closer to (full) precategoriality instead. Roughly speaking, the group of lexemes that is located towards (full) precategoriality are flexible lexemes, though with varying degrees of flexibility, whose semantics licenses a syntactic variety and can thus be linked to more than one word-class specification through syntactic specification, a syntactically specified process of category assignment. Based on these considerations, this study aims to present the results of a corpus-based investigation into flexibility of parts of speech in Classical Chinese. The research focuses on two types of syntactic specifications of flexible lexemes, namely, those using action-denoting lexemes in nominal function (the V→N type), and those using object-denoting lexemes in verbal function (the N→V type). The two types of syntactic specifications are investigated for this study in the five Classical Chinese texts (Zuozhuan, Mengzi, Guoyu, Mozi, and Zhanguoce). Based on empirical facts, flexibility of parts of speech in Classical Chinese is addressed at three descriptive levels in this study: First, at the level of syntax, the discussion focuses on the most important syntactic configurations for the use of flexible lexemes and their relations to the basic word order of this language, with flexibility being observed in two positions of an argument structure construction: the V-position and the syntactic position of an argument. The findings of this study demonstrate that as far as the argument structure constructions formed with flexible lexemes are concerned, VO word order is much more frequent than OV. This strong preference for VO is, in connection with lexical flexibility, explained as follows: With the loss of derivational morphology in early stages of Old Chinese (e.g. Sagart 1999), word order became the most important indicator of word class and strongly supported the omission of strict verb-noun distinctions (co-existence of precategoriality and categoriality) in the lexicon of this language. Second, at the level of cognitive semantics (e.g. Lakoff 1987; Kövecses and Radden 1998; Schönefeld 2005), the discussion concentrates on the metonymic relationships that constitute the cognitive-semantic foundation of the use of flexible lexemes in Classical Chinese. In a metonymic mapping of either the V→N or the N→V type, the original semantics of a lexical item (which may typically be associated with a certain syntactic role of N or V) is used as a reference point to provide mental access to the newly derived meaning of the item in another syntactic function. Given the typologically salient characteristics of Classical Chinese discussed in this book, the argument is that the flexible use of an existing word form as a metonymically related but syntactically distinct item is one of the most economic ways in this language to name a new concept or a newly construed situation in discourse. Third, at the level of argument structure constructions (Bisang 2008a, b), the discussion focuses on how the different metonymic relationships mentioned interact with a given argument structure construction (which carries its own meaning within itself), and how these are further concretized into rule-based or metaphorically motivated pragmatic implicatures. A closer examination of an argument structure construction with an object word in the V-position reveals that there are two underlying frameworks for deriving the concrete meaning of the construction. In the rule-based framework, the verbal function of a given object word can basically be derived through grammatical analysis of the whole construction. In the metaphorical framework, the composed semantics of the construction actively interacts with the outside world in our conceptual system, where metaphor (Lakoff 1987, 1993; Kövecses 2010) serves as an essential cognitive principle in establishing and (re-)interpreting relations in the construction. The two mechanisms, rule-based and metaphorical, complement each other and work together to account for flexibility in Classical Chinese. This study argues that flexibility of parts of speech in Classical Chinese can only be fully understood by integrating a wide range of aspects, both linguistic and non-linguistic. The components that are needed to account for it include constructions (form-meaning pairings), semantics (Croft’s conceptual space), pragmatic implicatures, metonymies, metaphors, as well as world knowledge as reflected within a culture. In my view, it is reasonable to argue that these components need not be specific to the language investigated here; they are applicable to any language that shows flexibility in its parts-of-speech system.
Dependency Structures From Syntax To Discourse
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Author : Hongxin Zhang
language : en
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Release Date : 2023-09-28
Dependency Structures From Syntax To Discourse written by Hongxin Zhang and has been published by Taylor & Francis this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2023-09-28 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
Based on the large corpora of journalistic English, this title examines dependency relations and related properties at both syntactic and discourse levels, seeking to unravel the language patterns of real-life usage. With a focus on rank-frequency distribution, the author investigates the distribution of linguistic properties/units from the perspectives of properties, motifs and sequencings. At the syntactic level, the book analyses the following three dimensions: various combinations of a complete dependency structure, valency and dependency distance. At the discourse level, it proves that the elements can also form dependency relations by exploring (1) the rank-frequency distribution of Rhetorical Structure Theory relations, their motifs, discourse valency and discourse dependency distance; (2) whether there is top-down organisation or an inverted pyramid structure at all the three discourse levels; and (3) whether discourse dependency distances and valencies are lawfully distributed, following the same distribution patterns as those at the syntactic level. This book will be of great value for scholars and students of quantitative linguistics and computational linguistics and its practical insights will also benefit professionals of language teaching and journalistic writing.
Grammaticalization Scenarios From Europe And Asia
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Author : Walter Bisang
language : en
Publisher: Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
Release Date : 2020-09-21
Grammaticalization Scenarios From Europe And Asia written by Walter Bisang and has been published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2020-09-21 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
This volume intends to fill the gap in the grammaticalization studies setting as its goal the systematic description of grammaticalization processes in genealogically and structurally diverse languages. To address the problem of the limitations of the secondary sources for grammaticalization studies, the editors rely on sketches of grammaticalization phenomena from experts in individual languages guided by a typological questionnaire.
The Oxford Handbook Of Word Classes
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Author : Eva van Lier
language : en
Publisher: Oxford University Press
Release Date : 2023-11-22
The Oxford Handbook Of Word Classes written by Eva van Lier and has been published by Oxford University Press this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2023-11-22 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
This handbook explores multiple facets of the study of word classes, also known as parts of speech or lexical categories. These categories are of fundamental importance to linguistic theory and description, both formal and functional, and for both language-internal analyses and cross-linguistic comparison. The volume consists of five parts that investigate word classes from different angles. Chapters in the first part address a range of fundamental issues including diversity and unity in word classes around the world, categorization at different levels of structure, the distinction between lexical and functional words, and hybrid categories. Part II examines the treatment of word classes across a wide range of contemporary linguistic theories, such as Cognitive Grammar, Minimalist Syntax, and Lexical Functional Grammar, while the focus of Part III is on individual word classes, from major categories such as verb and noun to minor ones such as adpositions and ideophones. Part IV provides a number of cross-linguistic case studies, exploring word classes in families including Afroasiatic, Sinitic, Mayan, Austronesian, and in sign languages. Chapters in the final part of the book discuss word classes from the perspective of various sub-disciplines of linguistics, ranging from first and second language acquisition to computational and corpus linguistics. Together, the contributions showcase the importance of word classes for the whole discipline of linguistics, while also highlighting the many ongoing debates in the areas and outlining fruitful avenues for future research.
Modern Chinese Parts Of Speech
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Author : Guo Rui
language : en
Publisher: Routledge
Release Date : 2019-03-04
Modern Chinese Parts Of Speech written by Guo Rui and has been published by Routledge this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2019-03-04 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
What is the essence of a part of speech? Why is it difficult to classify parts of speech? What are the bases and criteria for classifying them? How should they be classified? In doing so, how should a conversional word be dealt with? How should nomonalization be treated? These are just some of the questions answered in this book. The classification of parts of speech in Chinese is a tough job due to the language's lack of morphological differences. Based on the analysis of nearly 40,000 Chinese characters, this book proposes that, essentially, a part of speech is not of distributional type and that its intrinsic basis is an expressional function and the semantic type. Essentially, large categories such as substantive words, predicate words and modification words are classes of words classified according to their expressional functions. Basic categories such as nouns, verbs and adjectives are classes that combine semantic types with syntactical functions. In classifying parts of speech, the book pays attention not to identifying a single distributive characteristic that is internally universal and externally exclusive but to clustering the grammatical functions that have the same classification value through the “reflection-representation” relationship among distribution, expressional function and semantic type (distribution reflects expressional function and semantic type, which are, in turn, represented as distribution), thereby identifying the classification criteria. It uses distributional compatibility and the correlation principle to analyze which distributional differences represent differences in parts of speech and which do not. In this way, grammatical functions that have equal classification values are collected into one equivalent function cluster, each of which represents one part of speech. The book uses four strategies to classify parts of speech, namely the homogeneity strategy, the homomorphical strategy, the priority homomorphical strategy and the consolidation strategy. It will be a valuable reference for Chinese linguistic researchers and students as well as Chinese learners.
Flexible Word Classes
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Author : Jan Rijkhoff
language : en
Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA
Release Date : 2013-08-29
Flexible Word Classes written by Jan Rijkhoff and has been published by Oxford University Press, USA this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2013-08-29 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
This book is the first major cross-linguistic study of 'flexible words', i.e. words that cannot be classified in terms of the traditional lexical categories Verb, Noun, Adjective or Adverb. It includes new cross-linguistic studies of word class systems as well as original descriptive and theoretical contributions.
Proceedings Of The 3rd International Conference On Cognitive Based Information Processing And Applications Volume 3
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Author : Bernard J. Jansen
language : en
Publisher: Springer Nature
Release Date : 2024-05-30
Proceedings Of The 3rd International Conference On Cognitive Based Information Processing And Applications Volume 3 written by Bernard J. Jansen and has been published by Springer Nature this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2024-05-30 with Computers categories.
This book contains papers presented at the 3rd International Conference on Cognitive- based Information Processing and Applications (CIPA) in Changzhou, China, from November 2–3, 2023. The papers represent the various technological advancements in theory, technology and application of artificial intelligence, including precision mining, intelligent computing, deep learning, and all other theories, models, and technologies related to artificial intelligence. It caters to postgraduate students, researchers, and practitioners specializing and working in the area of cognitive-inspired computing and intelligent computing. The book represents Volume 3 for this conference proceedings, which consists of a 3-volume book series.
Chinese Linguistics
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Author : Giorgio Francesco Arcodia
language : en
Publisher: Oxford University Press
Release Date : 2021
Chinese Linguistics written by Giorgio Francesco Arcodia and has been published by Oxford University Press this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2021 with Foreign Language Study categories.
This volume provides a broad introduction to Chinese linguistics. It offers an accessible synthesis of the most relevant topics in the field both for researchers and scholars on China studies and for linguists, including those with little or no previous knowledge of Chinese.
Tang Shi San Bai Shou Three Hundred Tang Poems In The English Speaking World
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Author : Hu Xiaoying
language : en
Publisher: Taylor & Francis
Release Date : 2025-03-18
Tang Shi San Bai Shou Three Hundred Tang Poems In The English Speaking World written by Hu Xiaoying and has been published by Taylor & Francis this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2025-03-18 with Literary Criticism categories.
This book examines six English translations of Tang Shi San Bai Shou (Three Hundred Tang Poems), the renowned anthology of Tang poetry, and explores the challenges and strategies involved in conveying the essence of classical Chinese poetry to an English-speaking audience. As a classic anthology, Tang Shi San Bai Shou captures the linguistic features, unique expressions and traditional culture of ancient Chinese verse. Since its publication in the Qing dynasty, it has circulated widely in China and extended its influence to the English-speaking world, with a rich history of translation and dissemination. This book unravels the complexities of translating classical Chinese poetry and highlights the different approaches taken by translators of different periods and backgrounds by comparing six complete translations. The book discusses the linguistic, cultural and artistic characteristics of Tang poetry, and readers can see how these challenges and the gaps between ancient Chinese poetry and modern English audiences are bridged by the ongoing efforts of translators. Scholars and students of classical Chinese literature and translation studies, as well as Chinese-English translators and Chinese poetry enthusiasts, will find this book a useful reference. Readers interested in Chinese culture will be led into the poetic world of ancient China.
De La Transcat Gorialit Dans Les Langues
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Author : Danh-Thành Do-Hurinville
language : fr
Publisher: BoD - Books on Demand
Release Date : 2020-09-20
De La Transcat Gorialit Dans Les Langues written by Danh-Thành Do-Hurinville and has been published by BoD - Books on Demand this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2020-09-20 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
Cet opus qui s'adresse aux spécialistes en linguistique théorique et typologique, ainsi qu'à ceux qui s'intéressent à la problématique générale de la catégorisation en linguistique, met au coeur du débat la notion de transcatégorialité et ses manifestations dans les langues. Considérée comme un moyen d'optimisation des systèmes linguistiques, en associant un maximum de fonctions à un minimum de formes, elle introduit en revanche une complexité de type absolu, due à l'absence de biunivocité entre forme et sens. Les onze études, précédées d'un texte introductif, s'attachent, d'une part à apporter des éclairages théoriques et empiriques sur la transcatégorialité, d'autre part à décrire et à modéliser le comportement de morphèmes transcatégoriels, que ce soit du point de vue diachronique ou synchronique. Des données d'une riche palette de langues génétiquement et typologiquement éloignées (anglais, arabe, chinois, créole haïtien, créole mauricien, éwé, français, mazatec, swahili, tagalog, vietnamien, wolof) sont considérées.