Conditional Reasoning
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Conditional Reasoning
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Author : Raymond S. Nickerson
language : en
Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA
Release Date : 2015
Conditional Reasoning written by Raymond S. Nickerson and has been published by Oxford University Press, USA this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2015 with Psychology categories.
Conditional reasoning is reasoning that involves statements of the sort If A (Antecedent) then C (Consequent). This type of reasoning is ubiquitous; everyone engages in it. Indeed, the ability to do so may be considered a defining human characteristic. Without this ability, human cognition would be greatly impoverished. "What-if" thinking could not occur. There would be no retrospective efforts to understand history by imagining how it could have taken a different course. Decisions that take possible contingencies into account could not be made; there could be no attempts to influence the future by selecting actions on the basis of their expected effects. Despite the commonness and importance of conditional reasoning and the considerable attention it has received from scholars, it remains the subject of much continuing debate. Unsettled questions, both normative and empirical, continue to be asked. What constitutes normative conditional reasoning? How do people engage in it? Does what people do match what would be expected of a rational agent with the abilities and limitations of human beings? If not, how does it deviate and how might people's ability to engage in it be improved? This book reviews the work of prominent psychologists and philosophers on conditional reasoning. It describes empirical research on how people deal with conditional arguments and on how conditional statements are used and interpreted in everyday communication. It examines philosophical and theoretical treatments of the mental processes that support conditional reasoning. Its extensive coverage of the subject makes it an ideal resource for students, teachers, and researchers with a focus on cognition across disciplines.
Cognition And Conditionals
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Author : Mike Oaksford
language : en
Publisher: Oxford University Press, USA
Release Date : 2010
Cognition And Conditionals written by Mike Oaksford and has been published by Oxford University Press, USA this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2010 with Language Arts & Disciplines categories.
The conditional, if...then, is probably the most important term in natural language and forms the core of systems of logic and mental representation. Cognition and Conditionals is the first volume for over 20 years that brings together recent developments in the cognitive science and psychology of conditional reasoning.
Everyday Abstract Conditional Reasoning
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Author : András Veszelka
language : en
Publisher: Pellea Humán Kutató és Fejlesztő Bt.
Release Date : 2014-07-04
Everyday Abstract Conditional Reasoning written by András Veszelka and has been published by Pellea Humán Kutató és Fejlesztő Bt. this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2014-07-04 with Psychology categories.
The interpretation of the ‘if P then Q’ conditional statement is a central element in most logical systems. It largely shapes how these logical systems function. It is well known that, although attempts have been made, logical systems are principally unable to encapsulate how people reason in everyday life. This is mainly due to the discrepancies between the logical abstractions of the conditional statement and its everyday interpretation. Among other things, this makes it difficult to design artificial intelligence based on the abstract rules of logic. However, the ancient logicians who first defined the traditional interpretation of the conditional erroneously took into account more propositions than were actually being denoted. They characterised the ‘if P (or R) then Q’ relationship in place of the ‘if P then Q’ relationship. In relation to this, they also committed the error of leaving the context undenoted, which led to an unnatural interpretation of logical truth and logical necessity. This mistaken interpretation is still predominant today and can also be found in several mathematical logics, such as in propositional logic, even though mathematical logics were allegedly created independently of the ancient Greco-Roman logic. Fixing these problems reveals that the correct interpretation of the conditional statement is the equivalence/biconditional. This equivalent interpretation is interpreted by logicians as one of the most common everyday fallacies. Yet looking back on how the conditional statement was actually abstracted in the antiquity, it is evident that people were right and logicians were mistaken. Although the almost 50-year-old experimental psychological literature on the conditional did not confirm this common everyday tendency towards the biconditional interpretation, these findings are merely the result of unsystematic research. Running some of the long missing experiments leads the main experimental tasks to reveal overall the basic biconditional inferences. The approach presented in this book also resolves such dilemmas as the Wason’s abstract selection task, the paradox of the conditional statement and the Raven paradox. It is also shown here that the probabilistic interpretation of the conditional statement is not in conflict with this basic equivalent/biconditional interpretation. The approach is described in this book as the simplest possible non-monotonic logic, and pragmatic inferences, context effects, counterfactuals, possible world semantics and psychologism are also discussed. Since the conditional statement is equivalent to the universal affirmative statement in syllogisms, it is plausible to observe that fixing this same error in syllogisms also makes them compatible with people's actual inferences. Even the normally ambiguous Euler circles become an excellent tool to depict how this updated logic functions. Finally, with this new approach, the root of learning processes is inherently embedded into the logical abstraction of the conditional/universal affirmative statement, and hence, into logic in general. Therefore, this simple logic, presented in a non-technical way, has the potential to bring both human reasoning and learning under the umbrella of the same abstract system. This might be beneficial both for formalising psychology and for creating artificial intelligence.
Rules For Reasoning
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Author : Richard E. Nisbett
language : en
Publisher: Psychology Press
Release Date : 2013-02-01
Rules For Reasoning written by Richard E. Nisbett and has been published by Psychology Press this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2013-02-01 with Psychology categories.
This book examines two questions: Do people make use of abstract rules such as logical and statistical rules when making inferences in everyday life? Can such abstract rules be changed by training? Contrary to the spirit of reductionist theories from behaviorism to connectionism, there is ample evidence that people do make use of abstract rules of inference -- including rules of logic, statistics, causal deduction, and cost-benefit analysis. Such rules, moreover, are easily alterable by instruction as it occurs in classrooms and in brief laboratory training sessions. The fact that purely formal training can alter them and that those taught in one content domain can "escape" to a quite different domain for which they are also highly applicable shows that the rules are highly abstract. The major implication for cognitive science is that people are capable of operating with abstract rules even for concrete, mundane tasks; therefore, any realistic model of human inferential capacity must reflect this fact. The major implication for education is that people can be far more broadly influenced by training than is generally supposed. At high levels of formality and abstraction, relatively brief training can alter the nature of problem-solving for an infinite number of content domains.
Comprehensive Handbook Of Personality And Psychopathology Personality And Everyday Functioning
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Author : Jay C. Thomas
language : en
Publisher: John Wiley & Sons
Release Date : 2006-01-11
Comprehensive Handbook Of Personality And Psychopathology Personality And Everyday Functioning written by Jay C. Thomas and has been published by John Wiley & Sons this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2006-01-11 with Psychology categories.
Personality and Everyday Functioning covers the foundations of personality theory and the impact of personality on normal functioning. Leading personality researchers present chapters on major theories of personality, such as psychoanalytic, developmental, behavioral, and constructivist, to name a few.
Conditionals In Nonmonotonic Reasoning And Belief Revision
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Author : Gabriele Kern-Isberner
language : en
Publisher: Springer
Release Date : 2003-06-29
Conditionals In Nonmonotonic Reasoning And Belief Revision written by Gabriele Kern-Isberner and has been published by Springer this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2003-06-29 with Computers categories.
Conditionals are omnipresent, in everyday life as well as in scientific environments; they represent generic knowledge acquired inductively or learned from books. They tie a flexible and highly interrelated network of connections along which reasoning is possible and which can be applied to different situations. Therefore, conditionals are important, but also quite problematic objects in knowledge representation. This book presents a new approach to conditionals which captures their dynamic, non-proportional nature particularly well by considering conditionals as agents shifting possible worlds in order to establish relationships and beliefs. This understanding of conditionals yields a rich theory which makes complex interactions between conditionals transparent and operational. Moreover,it provides a unifying and enhanced framework for knowledge representation, nonmonotonic reasoning, belief revision,and even for knowledge discovery.
The Oxford Handbook Of Causal Reasoning
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Author : Michael Waldmann
language : en
Publisher: Oxford University Press
Release Date : 2017-03-30
The Oxford Handbook Of Causal Reasoning written by Michael Waldmann and has been published by Oxford University Press this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2017-03-30 with Psychology categories.
Causal reasoning is one of our most central cognitive competencies, enabling us to adapt to our world. Causal knowledge allows us to predict future events, or diagnose the causes of observed facts. We plan actions and solve problems using knowledge about cause-effect relations. Although causal reasoning is a component of most of our cognitive functions, it has been neglected in cognitive psychology for many decades. The Oxford Handbook of Causal Reasoning offers a state-of-the-art review of the growing field, and its contribution to the world of cognitive science. The Handbook begins with an introduction of competing theories of causal learning and reasoning. In the next section, it presents research about basic cognitive functions involved in causal cognition, such as perception, categorization, argumentation, decision-making, and induction. The following section examines research on domains that embody causal relations, including intuitive physics, legal and moral reasoning, psychopathology, language, social cognition, and the roles of space and time. The final section presents research from neighboring fields that study developmental, phylogenetic, and cultural differences in causal cognition. The chapters, each written by renowned researchers in their field, fill in the gaps of many cognitive psychology textbooks, emphasizing the crucial role of causal structures in our everyday lives. This Handbook is an essential read for students and researchers of the cognitive sciences, including cognitive, developmental, social, comparative, and cross-cultural psychology; philosophy; methodology; statistics; artificial intelligence; and machine learning.
A Fuzzy Propositional View Of Conditional Reasoning And Inference
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Author : Michael E. Hogan
language : en
Publisher:
Release Date : 1990
A Fuzzy Propositional View Of Conditional Reasoning And Inference written by Michael E. Hogan and has been published by this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 1990 with categories.
Assessing The Implicit Personality Through Conditional Reasoning
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Author : Lawrence R. James
language : en
Publisher: Amer Psychological Assn
Release Date : 2012
Assessing The Implicit Personality Through Conditional Reasoning written by Lawrence R. James and has been published by Amer Psychological Assn this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2012 with Psychology categories.
For many years, the explicit personality--that part of which the person is aware--has dominated the realm of personality assessment. Until now, the implicit personality--the unconscious, inaccessible, hidden reserve of motives and needs explored by Freud, Jung, Rorschach, and others--has been difficult to measure. Yet most psychologists have also concluded that both components of personality govern different behaviors, and their interplay may explain a variety of hitherto unexamined behaviors. In what Drew Westen has called the "explosion of empirical studies of unconscious cognitive processes," new, more efficient and psychometrically robust methods to measure the implicit personality have been developed of late, attempting to offer the ease and straightforwardness of the explicit personality's self-report assessment standard. Lawrence James and James LeBreton's Assessing the Implicit Personality Through Conditional Reasoning lays out a novel framework to examine how new measures of the implicit personality interact with more popular explicit personality measures to provide a comprehensive assessment of personality. The authors use conditional reasoning (CR) to indirectly assess various dimensions of the implicit personality: The chosen "solution" to specially constructed inductive reasoning problems is conditional on the test taker's personality--either prosocial or aggressive, the latter informed by unconscious negative cognitive biases and salient justification mechanisms for socially unacceptable aggression, achievement motivation, or fear of failure. The authors conclude this groundbreaking volume by exploring the other content domains of depression, addiction proneness, and "toxic leadership" through CR testing.
Reasoning Rationality And Dual Processes
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Author : Jonathan St B.T. Evans
language : en
Publisher: Psychology Press
Release Date : 2013-10-30
Reasoning Rationality And Dual Processes written by Jonathan St B.T. Evans and has been published by Psychology Press this book supported file pdf, txt, epub, kindle and other format this book has been release on 2013-10-30 with Psychology categories.
In the World Library of Psychologists series, international experts themselves present career-long collections of what they judge to be their finest pieces - extracts from books, key articles, salient research findings, and their major theoretical and practical contributions. Jonathan St B T Evans is amongst the foremost cognitive psychologists of his generation, having been influential in spearheading developments in the psychological study of reasoning from its very beginnings in the 1970s up to the present day. This volume of self-selected papers recognises Professor Evan’s major contribution to the psychological study of thinking and reasoning by bringing together his most influential and important works. Early selections in the book focus upon experimental studies of reasoning - matching bias in the Wason selection task, belief bias in syllogistic reasoning, and also seminal work on the understanding of conditional statements. The later selections include Evans’ work on more general forms of dual process and dual system theory, and his recent account of two minds in one brain. The volume also contains chapters which highlight Evans’ contribution to the topic of human rationality, and also his influence on the development of the "new paradigm" in the psychology of reasoning. The key developments in the psychology of reasoning are paralleled by those in Evans’s own intellectual history, and the book will therefore make essential reading for all researchers in the psychology of reasoning, and a wider audience of graduate and upper-level undergraduate students with an interest in reasoning and/or dual process theory.